COMMERCIAL SEXUAL EXPLOITATION AND SEX TRAFFICKING OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS: A NARRATIVE REVIEW (2017)
A growing body of research addresses the issue of “commercial sexual exploitation of children” (CSEC) and “child sex trafficking.” These overlapping terms describe crimes of a sexual nature committed against children and adolescents that involve exploitation for financial or other gain. Existing literature demonstrates that commercially sexually exploited youth typically experience significant and ongoing trauma. The literature teaches that these youths have a unique set of health risks, including violence-related injuries, sexually transmitted infections, unwanted pregnancy, and a variety of mental health problems. Though federal law defines these youth as victims of human trafficking, in many states, commercially sexually exploited children and adolescents are incarcerated for crimes related to their exploitation. Fear of incarceration can prevent victims from seeking available services. While health care providers may play a critical role in connecting commercially sexually exploited youth with community resources, most providers lack the knowledge of human trafficking necessary to fulfill this role effectively. Published research about this vulnerable pediatric population, although rapidly growing, is still extremely limited. Further research into the prevention, identification, intervention, and multidisciplinary management of CSEC and sex trafficking of children and adolescents is needed.
Citation: Barnert, E., Z. Iqbal, J. Bruce, A. Anoshiravani, G. Kolhatkar and J. Greenbaum (2017) ‘Commercial Sexual Exploitation and Sex Trafficking of Children and Adolescents: A Narrative Review’, Academic Pediatrics.
HEADING BACK TO HARM: A STUDY ON TRAFFICKED AND UNACCOMPANIED CHILDREN GOING MISSING FROM CARE IN THE UK (2016)
This research attempts to quantify the number of unaccompanied asylum-seeking children and children who may be trafficked in the UK care system, as well as the number who go missing from care. This year-long study documents an alarmingly high number of both unaccompanied asylum-seeking children and children who may have been trafficked go missing from care. Many have not been found. Local authorities with responsibility for the care of these children are frequently not able to report how many unaccompanied and trafficked children are in their care, and many failed to identify any child trafficking victims. Poor data collection and recording at a local level is deeply concerning and suggests that the UK’s wider child protection response to child victims of trafficking, in particular, is inadequate. The research finds that there is much more that could be done to keep these children ‘visible’ in the system, to prevent them from going missing and to respond effectively in order to keep them safe from further harm. This research has identified a worrying lack of consistency in the way in which local authorities identify and record risk of trafficking and exploitation. Identification of trafficking is also a challenge in the UK at local level, despite the creation in 2009 of a National Referral Mechanism (NRM) to identify victims. Therefore, the true number of trafficked and unaccompanied children going missing is likely to be far higher than findings suggest.
Citation: ECPAT UK and Missing People (2016) Heading back to harm: A study on trafficked and unaccompanied children going missing from care in the UK. United Kingdom: ECPAT UK and Missing People.
COMMERCIAL SEXUAL EXPLOITATION AND TRAFFICKING OF CHILDREN “IN A NUTSHELL”: A RESOURCE FOR PACIFIC ISLAND COUNTRIES (2015)
Commercial sexual exploitation and trafficking of children is considered by ILO as one of the worst forms of child labour which requires immediate and definitive action from governments. It is a violation of the fundamental human rights of the most vulnerable in our society, our children, and an outrage that must be condemned in the strongest manner, it must also galvanize us into action. ILO research in the Pacific has shown that these issues are present in our communities and a collective effort is required in the fight against this. The “Commercial Sexual Exploitation and Trafficking of Children in a Nutshell” is a resource designed to enhance the knowledge base on sexual exploitation and trafficking in the Pacific. It clarifies the worst forms of child labour concepts and relevant ILO and UN Conventions that deal with these issues and highlights the risk and vulnerability factors that we must guard against to protect our children.
Citation: ILO (2015) Commercial Sexual Exploitation and Trafficking of Children “in a nutshell”: A Resource for Pacific Island Countries. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Organization.
CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH: BEYOND TRAFFICKING AND SLAVERY SHORT COURSE (2015)
This publication on child trafficking outlines serious consequences for children and children’s rights when public and policy responses to children’s mobility are driven by moral panic, international pressure, and western centric ideals of childhood rather than evidence. The publication also explores the multifaceted nature of children’s work.
Citation: Howard, N. and S. Okyere (Eds.) (2015) Childhood and Youth: Beyond Trafficking and Slavery Short Course. United Kingdom: Beyond Trafficking and Slavery.
Re/integration of trafficked persons. Working with trafficked children and youth (2014)
Children and youth account for a significant proportion of persons trafficked from and within the Balkan region. Both boys and girls are trafficked. Some are exploited sexually; others are exploited for different forms of labor, including begging and street selling. Still others suffer multiple forms of exploitation while trafficked. Reintegrating trafficked children presents particularly complex issues and challenges. This paper discusses each of the different services and types of support needed to meet the reintegration needs of trafficked children and youth in the Balkan region and in line with international standards. It also looks into challenges facing service providers in offering this support to trafficked children and youth, including: the identification of trafficked children, options for providing foster care, and prosecution of perpetrators due to gaps in the criminal code. This paper offers recommendations about how each service area might be enhanced to better meet the reintegration needs of trafficked children and youth.
Citation: Surtees, R. (2014) Re/integration of Trafficked Persons. Working with Trafficked Children and Youth. Washington, D.C., United States: NEXUS Institute.
CONFRONTING COMMERCIAL SEXUAL EXPLOITATION AND SEX TRAFFICKING OF MINORS IN THE UNITED STATES (2013)
Commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors in the United States are commonly overlooked, misunderstood, and unaddressed forms of child abuse. Their consequences are far-reaching. Despite the gravity of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors in the United States, moreover, few professionals and systems responsible for protecting and serving children and adolescents are adequately prepared to prevent, identify, and respond to these problems. Although a modest amount of research and noteworthy practices and programs have emerged, far more needs to be known before it will be possible to adequately understand and respond to commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors in the United States. This report is designed to provide a more complete picture of the problems by connecting the dots between more established fields of research and practice and the emerging body of work on commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors in the United States. This report also aims to provide the scientific underpinnings for future practice, policy, and research efforts and help raise awareness and encourage action on problems of national importance with serious health and safety implications. The report identifies opportunities—through the expansion and enhancement of current efforts and the introduction of new strategies—to advance understanding of and improve the nation’s response to commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors.
Citation: Clayton, E.W., R.D. Krugman and P. Simon (Eds.) (2013) Confronting Commercial Sexual Exploitation and Sex Trafficking of Minors in the United States. United States: Committee on the Commercial Sexual Exploitation and Sex Trafficking of Minors in the United States.
AND BOYS TOO: AN ECPAT-USA DISCUSSION PAPER ABOUT THE LACK OF RECOGNITION OF THE COMMERCIAL SEXUAL EXPLOITATION OF BOYS IN THE UNITED STATES (2013)
While awareness of commercial sexual exploitation of boys (CSEB) has paled next to that of commercial sexual exploitation of girls (CSEG), two important studies in the past 12 years, (Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children in the U.S., Canada and Mexico and The Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children in New York City), have estimated that high percentages of commercially sexually exploited children in the U.S. are boys. This study examines available information about CSEB, their participation in CSEC, and services available to them. It is based on desk reviews, supplemented by interviews with 40 key service providers and youth agencies. The research explored several questions relating to the existence and circumstances of CSEB including about their backgrounds and experiences, their exploiters, their needs and what services are available to meet those needs. Although many of the answers were inconclusive, several clear findings and messages stood out. Most significantly, responses from service providers clearly indicate that the scope of CSEB is vastly under reported, that commercial sexual exploitation poses very significant risks to their health and their lives; that gay and transgenders are over-represented as a proportion of the sexually exploited boys; and that there is a shortage of services for these boys. The fact that boys and young men may be less likely to be pimped or trafficked highlights the fact that even if there is no third party involved in the commercial transaction, “buyers/exploiters” of sexually exploited children should be prosecuted under anti-trafficking statutes. ECPAT-USA recommends to raise awareness about the scope of CSEB and to expand research about which boys are vulnerable to sexual exploitation and how to meet their needs.
Citation: Friedman, S.A. (2013) And Boys Too: An ECPAT-USA discussion paper about the lack of recognition of the commercial sexual exploitation of boys in the United States. United States: ECPAT.
CHILDREN, ADOLESCENTS AND HUMAN TRAFFICKING: MAKING SENSE OF A COMPLEX PROBLEM (2012)
This issue paper presents current knowledge about the scope and meaning of child trafficking. Although it might seem to be a simple subject to describe, it is not. First, there is the question of what a ‘child’ is. Additionally, there is confusion about how to distinguish between child employment, which is permissible, and child labor, which is not. Also, there is a conflict between international law and local practices because, in many countries, children routinely start to work before reaching the minimum legal age for employment set by international law. The issue is particularly problematic when children work away from home and are assisted in travelling or finding work by a range of intermediaries. When observers from outside the country denounce these intermediaries as ‘traffickers,’ the children view their intervention as unhelpful and unrealistic in the local context of their work. Also, people often confuse smuggling with trafficking. Child smuggling involves accompanying a child illicitly across an international frontier in return for payment, but without the intention to exploit the child subsequently. Child trafficking involves an intention to engage in extreme forms of exploitation of the child at the destination. This paper introduces the complexity around the issue of child trafficking in light of the current emphasis on the worst forms of child labor, as well as the need for better, evidence- and rights-based research, laws, policy and practices. The paper ends with recommendations on how to move forward. The overall goal of the paper is to bring the needs and rights of children and adolescents to the foreground and to argue for more contextually appropriate, rights-based responses.
Citation: Dottridge, M. and A. Jordan (2012) Children, Adolescents and Human Trafficking: Making Sense of a Complex Problem. United States: American University Washington College of Law.
HUMAN TRAFFICKING OF YOUNG WOMEN AND GIRLS FOR SEXUAL EXPLOITATION IN SOUTH AFRICA (2012)
This paper illustrates the plight of victims of human trafficking for involuntary prostitution. A theoretical framework to elucidate the vulnerability of young women and girls to human trafficking is provided, particularly within the socio-economic and socio-cultural context within which human trafficking in South Africa occurs. South African responses to human trafficking are identified, taking into account the fact that the relevant legislation has not yet been passed into law, because certain social and legal politics are preventing the rapid processing of this law. A strategy or policy that could effectively reduce the human trafficking of young women and girls for sexual exploitation in South Africa is proposed.
Citation: Lutya, T.M. (2012) Human Trafficking of Young Women and Girls for Sexual Exploitation in South Africa. INTECH.
AN EXPLORATORY MODEL OF GIRL’S VULNERABILITY TO COMMERCIAL SEXUAL EXPLOITATION IN PROSTITUTION’, CHILD MALTREATMENT (2011)
Due to inaccessibility of child victims of commercial sexual exploitation, the majority of emergent research on the problem lacks theoretical framing or sufficient data for quantitative analysis. Drawing from Agnew’s general strain theory, this study utilized structural equation modeling to explore: whether caregiver strain is linked to child maltreatment, if experiencing maltreatment is associated with risk-inflating behaviors or sexual denigration of self/others, and if these behavioral and psychosocial dysfunctions are related to vulnerability to commercial sexual exploitation. The proposed model was tested with data from174 predominately African American women, 12% of whom indicated involvement in prostitution while a minor. Findings revealed child maltreatment worsened with increased caregiver strain. Experiencing child maltreatment was linked to running away, initiating substance use at earlier ages, and higher levels of sexual denigration of self/others. Sexual denigration of self/others was significantly related to the likelihood of prostitution as a minor. The network of variables in the model accounted for 34% of the variance in prostitution as a minor.
Citation: Reid, J.A. (2011) ‘An Exploratory Model of Girl’s Vulnerability to Commercial Sexual Exploitation in Prostitution’, Child Maltreatment, 16(2), pp. 146-157.